THEORY
OF TRANSLATION
FORM AND MEANING
What is
translation?
Translation is the expression in another language (target
language) of what has been expressed in one language (source language),
preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies. (By Roger T. Bell).
Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in
one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language (By Roger T. Bell).
The author continues and makes the problems of equivalence very
plain:
Quote:
Texts in different languages can be
equivalent in different degrees (fully or partially different), in respect of
different levels of presentation (in respect of context, of semantics, of
grammar, or lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase,
sentence-for-sentence).
However, languages are different from each other; they are
different in form having different codes and rules regulating the construction
of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings.
To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to change
the forms. Also, the contrasting forms convey meaning which cannot but fail to
coincide totally, there is no absolute synonym between words in the same
language, why should anyone be surprised to discover a lack synonym between
languages.
Something is always ‘lost’ (or might one suggest ‘gain’?) in the
process and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only
part of the original and so ‘betraying’ the author’s intentions. Hence the
traitorous nature ascribed to the translator by the notorious Italian proverb:
“Traduttore tradittore”.
Faced by a text in a language, we are able to work out not only
the meaning of each word and sentence, but also its communicative value, its
place in time and space and information about the participants involved in its
production and reception. We might take, as a light-hearted model of the
questions we can ask of the text, the first verse of a short poem by Kipling.
I keep six honest serving men;
(They taught me all I knew);
Their names were What? And Why? And
When?
And How? And Where? And Who?
What? is the message
contained in the text; the content of the signal.
Why? orient us
towards the intention of the sender, the purpose for which the text was is
used. (Informing, persuading, flattering, etc.)
When? is concerned
with the time of communication realized in the text and setting in its
historical context; contemporary or set in the recent or remote past or future.
Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of the speech event realized in the text.
How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way.
Who? refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and receiver.
Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended the text. (ByBui
Tien Bao-
Hanoi National
University
Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of the speech event realized in the text.
How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way.
Who? refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and receiver.
Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended the text. (By
Quote:
|
“Translators are concerned with
written texts. They render written texts from one language into another language.
Translators are required to translate texts which arrange from simple items
including birth certificates or driving licences to more complex written
materials such as articles in journals of various kinds, business contracts
and legal documents.” (
|
Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from
one state or form to another, to turn into one’s own or another’s language.
(The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1974). Translation is basically a change of
form. When we speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual
words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the
surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of language which is
actually seen in print or heard in speech. In translation the form of the
source language is replaced by the form of the receptor/target language. But
how is this change accomplished? What determines the choices of form in the
translation?
The purpose of this lesson is to show that translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of the second language by a way of semantic structure. It is meaning that is being transferred and must be held constant. Only the form changes. The form from which the translation is made will be called the source language and the form into which it is to be changed will be called the receptor language. Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon, grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context.
Let us look at an example. Assume that we are translating the Vietnamese sentence “Cám ơn bạn đã giúp đỡ tôi tận tình.” into English. This Vietnamese sentence has the verb ‘giúp đỡ tận tình’, but to convey the same meaning in English one would use a noun phrase: ‘your kind help’. To do effective translation one must discover the meaning of the source language and use the receptor language forms which express the meaning in a natural way.
It is the purpose of this unit to familiarize the learners with the basic linguistic and sociolinguistic factors involved in translating a text from a source language into a receptor language, and to give them enough practice in the translation process for the development of skills in cross-language transfer.
The purpose of this lesson is to show that translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of the second language by a way of semantic structure. It is meaning that is being transferred and must be held constant. Only the form changes. The form from which the translation is made will be called the source language and the form into which it is to be changed will be called the receptor language. Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon, grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context.
Let us look at an example. Assume that we are translating the Vietnamese sentence “Cám ơn bạn đã giúp đỡ tôi tận tình.” into English. This Vietnamese sentence has the verb ‘giúp đỡ tận tình’, but to convey the same meaning in English one would use a noun phrase: ‘your kind help’. To do effective translation one must discover the meaning of the source language and use the receptor language forms which express the meaning in a natural way.
It is the purpose of this unit to familiarize the learners with the basic linguistic and sociolinguistic factors involved in translating a text from a source language into a receptor language, and to give them enough practice in the translation process for the development of skills in cross-language transfer.
Characteristics of language which affect translation
There are certain characteristics of languages which have a very direct bearing on principles of translation. First, let us look at the characteristics of meaning components. Meaning components are packaged into lexical items, but they are packaged differently in one language than in another. In most languages there is a meaning of plurality, for example the English -s. This often occurs in the grammar as a suffix on the nouns or verbs or both. In Vietnamese, however, plurality is expressed in an isolated word ‘những/các’. Many times a single word in the source language will need to be translated by several words. For example, a projector was called the thing that shows pictures on the wall by the Chipara Bolivia.
Second, it is characteristic of languages that the same meaning component will occur in several surface structure lexical items. In English, the word ‘sheep’ occurs. However, the words ‘lamb’,’ ram’ and ‘ewe’ also include the meaning ‘sheep’. They include the addition meaning components of young (in ‘lamb’, adult and male in ‘ ram’ and adult and female in ‘ewe’. InPeru
Third, it is further characteristic of language that one form will be used to represent several alternative meanings. This again is obvious from looking in any good dictionary. For example, the Reader’s Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary gives 54 meanings for the English word ‘run’. Most words have more than one meaning. There will be a primary meaning-the one which usually comes to mind when the word is said in isolation-and the secondary meaning-the additional meanings, which a word has in context with other words. In English, we can say ‘the boy runs’, using ‘run’ in its primary meaning. We can also say ‘the motor runs, the river runs, and his nose runs’, using runs in its secondary meanings.
This principle is not limited to lexical items for it is also true that the same grammatical pattern may express several quite different meanings. For instance, the English possessive phrase ‘my house’ may mean ‘the house I built’, ‘the house I rent’, ‘the house I live in’, or ‘the house for which I drew up in my plans.’ Only the larger context determines the meaning. Notice the following possessive phrases and the variety of meanings:
There are certain characteristics of languages which have a very direct bearing on principles of translation. First, let us look at the characteristics of meaning components. Meaning components are packaged into lexical items, but they are packaged differently in one language than in another. In most languages there is a meaning of plurality, for example the English -s. This often occurs in the grammar as a suffix on the nouns or verbs or both. In Vietnamese, however, plurality is expressed in an isolated word ‘những/các’. Many times a single word in the source language will need to be translated by several words. For example, a projector was called the thing that shows pictures on the wall by the Chipara Bolivia.
Second, it is characteristic of languages that the same meaning component will occur in several surface structure lexical items. In English, the word ‘sheep’ occurs. However, the words ‘lamb’,’ ram’ and ‘ewe’ also include the meaning ‘sheep’. They include the addition meaning components of young (in ‘lamb’, adult and male in ‘ ram’ and adult and female in ‘ewe’. In
Third, it is further characteristic of language that one form will be used to represent several alternative meanings. This again is obvious from looking in any good dictionary. For example, the Reader’s Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary gives 54 meanings for the English word ‘run’. Most words have more than one meaning. There will be a primary meaning-the one which usually comes to mind when the word is said in isolation-and the secondary meaning-the additional meanings, which a word has in context with other words. In English, we can say ‘the boy runs’, using ‘run’ in its primary meaning. We can also say ‘the motor runs, the river runs, and his nose runs’, using runs in its secondary meanings.
This principle is not limited to lexical items for it is also true that the same grammatical pattern may express several quite different meanings. For instance, the English possessive phrase ‘my house’ may mean ‘the house I built’, ‘the house I rent’, ‘the house I live in’, or ‘the house for which I drew up in my plans.’ Only the larger context determines the meaning. Notice the following possessive phrases and the variety of meanings:
my car -----------------> ownership
my brother -------------> kinship
my foot ----------------> part-whole
my village --------------> residence
(the village where I live)
my singing -------------> action
my book ---------------> ownership or authorship
(the book I own, or, the book I wrote)
my train ---------------> use
(the train I ride on)
my brother -------------> kinship
my foot ----------------> part-whole
my village --------------> residence
(the village where I live)
my singing -------------> action
my book ---------------> ownership or authorship
(the book I own, or, the book I wrote)
my train ---------------> use
(the train I ride on)
Whole sentences may also have several functions. A question form may be used for a non-question. For example, the question: “Mary, why don’t you wash the dishes?” has a form of a question, and may in some context be asking for information, but it is often used with the meaning of command rather than a real question. A simple English sentence like “He made the bed.” May mean either “He made (as a carpenter would make) the bed”, or “He put the sheets, blanket, and pillows in neat order on the bed.”
Just as words have primary and secondary meanings, so grammatical markers have their primary function and often have other secondary functions. The preposition ‘on’ is used in English to signal a variety of meanings. Compare the following uses of ‘on’ with the corresponding form used in Vietnamese.
John found the book on the floor. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách trên sàn nhà.
John found the book on mathematics. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách viết về môn toán.
John found the book on Tuesday. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách vào thứ Ba.
John found the book on sale. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách đang bày bán.
John found the book on mathematics. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách viết về môn toán.
John found the book on Tuesday. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách vào thứ Ba.
John found the book on sale. --- John tìm thấy cuốn sách đang bày bán.
Compare also the following uses of ‘by’
John was stopped by the policeman.
John was stopped by the bookstand.
John was stopped by the bookstand.
In the first, by is used to signal the meaning that
the policeman is the agent of the action. In the second, by is used to signal that the
bookstand is the location.
We have seen that one form may express many meanings. On the other hand, another characteristic of languages is that a single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms. For example, the meaning “the cat is black” may be expressed by the following: the cat is black, the black cat, and, the cat, which is black, depending on how that meaning relates to other meanings. In addition, the meanings of “Is this place taken?” “Is there anyone sitting here?” and “May I sit here?” are essentially the same. Also, the meaning is essentially the same in the following English sentences:
We have seen that one form may express many meanings. On the other hand, another characteristic of languages is that a single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms. For example, the meaning “the cat is black” may be expressed by the following: the cat is black, the black cat, and, the cat, which is black, depending on how that meaning relates to other meanings. In addition, the meanings of “Is this place taken?” “Is there anyone sitting here?” and “May I sit here?” are essentially the same. Also, the meaning is essentially the same in the following English sentences:
Others blamed John because of the difficulty.
Others blamed John for the difficulty.
Others blamed the difficulty on John.
Others said John was responsible for the difficulty.
Others accused John of being responsible for the difficulty.
Others blamed John for the difficulty.
Others blamed the difficulty on John.
Others said John was responsible for the difficulty.
Others accused John of being responsible for the difficulty.
We have seen that even within a single language there are a great variety of ways in which form expresses meaning. Only when a form being used in its primary meaning or function is there a one-to-one correlation between form and meaning. The other meanings are secondary meanings or figurative meanings. Words have these extended meanings and in the same way grammatical forms have extended usages (secondary and figurative function).
This characteristic of “skewing”; that is, the diversity or the lack of one-to-one correlation between form and meaning is the basic reason that translation is a complicated task. If there were no skewing, then all lexical items and all grammatical forms would have only one meaning and a literal word-for-word and grammatical structure-for- grammatical structure translation would be possible. But the fact is that a language is a complex set of skewed relationship between meaning (semantics) and form (lexicon and grammar). Each language has its own distinctive forms for representing the meaning. Therefore, in translation the same meaning may have to be expressed in another language by a very different form.
To translate the form of one language literally according to the corresponding form in another language would often change the meaning or at least result in a form which is unnatural in the second language. Meaning must, therefore, have priority over form in translation. It is meaning that is to be carried over from the source language to the receptor language, not the linguistic forms. For example, to translate the English sentence “he is cold hearted” i.e. His heart is cold (meaning ‘he is unfeeling, has no emotional sympathy.’) literally into Mambila in
The nature of language is that each language uses different forms and these forms have secondary and figurative meanings which add further complications. A word-for-word translation which follows closely the form of the source language is called a literal translation. A literal translation does not communicate the meaning of the source text. It is generally no more than a string of words intended to help someone read a text in its original language. It is unnatural and hard to understand, and may even be quite meaningless, or give a wrong meaning in the receptor language. It can hardly be called a translation. The goal of a translator should be to produce a receptor language text (a translation) which is idiomatic; that is one which has the same meaning as the source language but is expressed in the natural form of the receptor language. The meaning, not form is retained.
Notes
Form-based translation: Dịch dựa vào hình thức hay cấu trúc
Meaning-based translation: Dịch dựa vào nghĩa, dựa vào nội dung
cần chuyển tải
Source language: Ngôn ngữ gốc
Receptor language: Ngôn ngữ dịch
Context: Văn cảnh/ ngữ cảnh
Principle of translation: Nguyên tắc dịch/kỹ thuật dịch
Meaning component: Thành tố nghĩa
Lexical: (thuộc về) Từ vựng
Surface structure: Cấu trúc bề mặt
Deep structure: Cấu trúc sâu/cấu trúc ngữ nghĩa
Meaning / sense: Nghĩa
Primary meaning: Nghĩa chính/nghĩa gốc
Secondary meaning: Nghĩa phái sinh
Literal translation: Dịch từng từ một
One-to-one correlation: Quan hệ một đối một
Figurative meaning: Nghĩa bóng
Function: Chức năng
Questions for Tests
1. What is translation?
2. What is a literal translation? Can you give some examples of literal translations?
3. What is an idiomatic translation? Give some examples of idiomatic translations.
4. What characteristics of language affect translation?
5. What are the secondary meanings? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in a secondary sense.
6. What is the primary meaning? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in a primary sense.
2. What is a literal translation? Can you give some examples of literal translations?
3. What is an idiomatic translation? Give some examples of idiomatic translations.
4. What characteristics of language affect translation?
5. What are the secondary meanings? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in a secondary sense.
6. What is the primary meaning? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in a primary sense.
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